Greek Suffixes 2

Level: C1

hyper- over, beyond: hyperbole, hypercritical

hypo- under: hypothesis, hypocrite

meta- (met) implying, change: metaphor, metonymy

pan- all: panacea, panorama, pantheism

para- beside, by the side of: parallel, paradox, parasite

peri- round: period, perimeter, periscope

philo- (phil) love: philosophy, philanthropy

pro- before: prophesy, programme

syn- (sym, syl, sy) with, together: synonym, sympathy, syllabus, system

Mountain Pioneers

Level: C1

What was the main objective of early mountain climbers? Modern alpinists try to climb mountains by a route which will give them good sport, and the more difficult it is, the more highly it is regarded. In the pioneering days, however, this was not the case at all. The early climbers were looking for the easiest way to the top, because the summit was the prize they sought, especially if it had never been attained before. It is true that during their explorations they often faced difficulties and dangers of the most perilous nature, equipped in a manner with what would make a modern climber shudder at the thought, but they did not go out of their way to court such excitement. They had a single aim, a solitary goal – the top!

It is hard for us to realize nowadays how difficult it was for the pioneers. Except for one or two places such as Zermatt and Chamonix, which had rapidly become popular, Alpine villages tended to be impoverished settlements cut off from civilization by the high mountains. Such inns as there were generally dirty and flea-ridden; the food simply local cheese accompanied by bread often twelve months old, all washed down with coarse wine. Often a valley boasted no inn at all, and climbers found shelter wherever they could – sometimes with the local priest (who was usually as poor as his parishioners), sometimes with shepherds or cheese-makers. Invariably, the background was the same: dirt and poverty, and very uncomfortable. For men accustomed to eating seven-course dinners and sleeping between fine linen sheets at home, the change to the Alps must have very hard indeed.

From Matterhorn Man by Walter Unsworth

Glossary

accompanied by- served with

accustomed to- used to; familiar with

alpinist- a mountain-climber, especially in the Alps

attain- to succeed in achieving something after trying for a long time

boast- to have something that is very good

coarse- rough

court- to behave in a way that makes danger, death, excitement, etc. more likely

cut off- separated

equip- to provide a person with the things that are needed for a particular kind of activity or work

except for- used to introduce the only person, thing, action, fact, or situation about which a statement is not true

flea-ridden- full of fleas; infested with fleas

go out of your way- to do something with more effort than is usual or expected

impoverished- poor; very bad in quality

inn- a small hotel or pub, especially an old one in the country

invariably- always; without exception; all the time

linen- cloth made from the flax plant

objective- goal

parishioner- someone who lives in a parish, especially someone who regularly goes to a Christen church there

perilous- very dangerous

pioneer- one of the first people who travel to a new country or area and begin living there, farming, etc.

pioneering- introducing new and better methods or ideas for the first time

regard- to think about someone or something in a particular way

route- a way from one place to another

seek- to try to achieve or get something

settlement- a group of houses and buildings where people live, especially in a place where few people have lived before

shelter- protection from danger or from wind, rain, hot sun, etc.

shudder- to think that something is very bad or unpleasant

solitary- single; just one

tend- if something tends to happen, it happens often and is likely to happen again

wash something down- to drink something with or after food or with medicine to help you swallow it

Collocations

the main objective of something

give someone good sport

regard something highly

in the pioneering days

seek a prize

attain a prize

it is true that

face difficulties/dangers

be equipped with something

shudder at the thought (of something)

court excitement

a solitary goal

impoverish settlements

cut off from civilization

boast no inn

find shelter

be accustomed to something/doing something

sleep between linen sheets

English Suffixes - Adjective Makers

Level: C1

-ed having: gifted, talented, wretched, learned
-en made of: wooden, golden, woollen, earthen
-ful full of: hopeful, fruitful, joyful
-ish somewhat like: boorish, reddish, girlish
-less free from, without: fearless, shameless, hopeless, senseless, boundless
-ly like: manly, godly, sprightly
-some with the quality of: wholesome, meddlesome, gladsome, quarrelsome
-ward inclining to: forward, wayward
-y with the quality of: wealthy, healthy, windy, slimy, greedy, needy, thirsty, dirty

Greek Prefixes 2

Level: C1

di- twice: dilemma
dia- through: diagonal, diameter
dys- badly: dyspepsia, dysentery
en - (em) in: encyclopaedia, emblem
epi- upon: epilogue, epitaph
eu- well: eulogy, euphony, eugenics
ex- (ec) out of: exodus, eccentric
hemi- half: hemisphere
homo- (hom) like: homogeneous, homonym

The Wonder of Spiders

Level: C1

How much of each year do spiders spend killing insects? Why, you may wonder, should spiders be our friends? Because they destroy so many insects, and insects include some of the greatest enemies of the human race. Insects would make it impossible for us to live in the world; they would devour all our crops and kill our flocks and herds, if it were not for the protection we get from insect-eating animals. We owe a lot to the birds and beasts who eat insects but all of them put together kill only a fraction of the number destroyed by spiders. Moreover, unlike some of the other insect eaters, spiders never do the harm to us or our belongings. Spiders are not insects, as many people think, nor even nearly related to them. One can tell the difference almost at a glance, for a spider always has eight legs and insect never more than six.

How many spiders are engaged in this work on our behalf? One authority on spiders made a census of the spiders in grass field in the south of England, and he estimated that there were more than 2,250,000 in one acre; that is something like 6,000,000 spiders of different kinds on a football pitch. Spiders are busy for at least half the year in killing insects. It is impossible to make more than the wildest guess at how many they kill, but they are hungry creatures, not content with only three meals a day. It has been estimated that the weight of all the insects destroyed by spiders in Britain in one year would be greater than the total weight of all the human beings in the country.

From Spare that Spider in The listener by T. H. Gillesple 

Glossary

all put together- bigger than several things if they are added together

at least- not less than a particular number or amount

authority- someone who knows a lot about a subject and whose knowledge and opinions are greatly respected

beast- an animal, especially a large or dangerous one

census- an official process of counting something for government planning

content- happy or satisfied

destroy- to damage something so badly that is no longer exists or cannot be used or repaired

devour- to east something quickly because you are very hungry

engage- to be doing or become involved in an activity

estimate- to try to judge the value, size, speed, cost, etc. of something, without calculating it exactly

flock- a group of sheep, goats, or birds

fraction- a very small amount of something

glance- a quick look

herd- a group of animals of one kind that live and feed together

nearly- almost, but not quite or not completely

Collocations

spend time doing something

make it impossible for someone to do something

get protection from something or someone

owe something to someone or something

a fraction of something

do harm to someone or something

tell the difference

at a glance

be engaged in something

on someone’s behalf

an authority on a subject

make a census of something

make a guess at something

a wild guess

content with

it is estimated that

Fossil Ancestors

Level: C1

Why are legends handed down by storytellers useful? We can read of things that happened 5,000 years ago in the Near East, where people first learned to write. But there are some parts of the world where even now people cannot write. The only way that they can preserve their history is to recount it as sagas – legends handed down from one generation to another. These legends are useful because they can tell us something about migrations of people who lived long ago, but none could write down what they did. Anthropologists wondered where the remote ancestors of the Polynesian peoples now living in the Pacific Islands came from. The sagas of these people explain that some of them came from Indonesia about 2,000 years ago.

But the first people who were like ourselves lived so long ago that even their sagas, if they had any, are forgotten. So archaeologists have neither history nor legends to help them to find out where the first ‘modern men’ came from.

Fortunately, however, ancient men made tools of stone, especially flint, because this is easier to shape than other kinds. They may also have used wood and skins, but these have rotted away. Stone does not decay, and so the tools of long ago have remained when even the bones of the men who made them have disappeared without trace.

From Finding Fossil Man by Robin Place

Glossary

ancestor- a member of your family that lived a long time ago

anthropologist- a scientist who studies people and their societies

archaeologist- a scientist who studies ancient societies by examining what remains of their buildings, graves, tools, etc.

decay- to be slowly destroyed by a natural chemical process, or to make something do this

hand something down- to give or leave something to people who will live after you

legend- an old well-known story, often about brave people, adventures, or magical events

migration- when large numbers of people go to live in another area or country

preserve- to save something or someone from being harmed or destroyed; to make something continue without changing

recount- to tell someone a story or describe a series of events

rot away- to decay by a gradual natural process, or to make something do this

saga- a long story about events that happen over many years

shape something- to make something have a particular shape

trace- a small sign that shows that someone or something was present or existed

Collocations

hand down a legend

preserve your history

recount something as a saga

write something down

remote ancestors (of someone)

make tools of stone/flint/etc.

tools of long ago

without trace

Latin Suffixes - Verb Makers

Level: C1

-ate: assassinate, captivate, exterminate
-esce: acquiesce, effervesce
-fy: simplify, purify, fortify, sanctify, terrify
-ish: publish, nourish, punish, banish

English Suffixes - Adjective Makers

Level: C1

-ed having: gifted, talented, wretched, learned
-en made of: wooden, golden, woollen, earthen
-ful full of: hopeful, fruitful, joyful
-ish somewhat like: boorish, reddish, girlish
-less free from, without: fearless, shameless, hopeless, senseless, boundless
-ly like: manly, godly, sprightly
-some with the quality of: wholesome, meddlesome, gladsome, quarrelsome
-ward inclining to: forward, wayward
-y with the quality of: wealthy, healthy, windy, slimy, greedy, needy, thirsty, dirty

Greek Suffixes 1

Level: C1

-ic (ique): angelic, cynic, phonic, unique

-ist: arist, chemist

-isk: asterisk, obelisk

-ism (asm): patriotism, despotism, enthusiasm

-ize: civilize, sympathize, criticize

-sis (sy): crisis, analysis, heresy, poesy

-e (y): catastrophe, monarchy, philosophy

Note: We still feel the force of a number of suffixes of foreign origin. These are:

-ee (French) added to nouns to denote, usually, the person who takes a passive share in an action: employee, payee, legatee, mortgagee, trustee, referee

-or (ar, er, eer, ier) denoting a person who performs a certain act or function: emperor, scholar, officer, muleteer, gondolier

-ist denoting a person who follows a certain trade or pursuit: chemist, theosophist, artist, nihilist

-ism forming abstract nouns: patriotism

-ble forming adjectives that have usually a passive sense: tolerable, bearable

-ize (ise) forming verbs from nouns and adjectives: crystallize, civilize, moralize, baptize

English Suffixes - Noun Makers

Level: C1

(1) Denoting agent/doer

-er (ar, or, yer): painter, baker, beggar, sailor, lawyer

-ster: spinster, punster, songster

-ter (ther): daughter, father

(2) Denoting state, action, condition, being, etc.

-dom: freedom, martyrdom, wisdom

-hood (head): manhood, childhood, godhead

-lock (ledge): wedlock, knowledge

-ness: darkness, boldness, goodness, sweetness

-red: kindred, hatred

-ship: hardship, friendship, lordship

-th: health, stealth, growth

(3) Forming diminutives

-el (le): satchel, kernel, girdle, handle

-en: maiden, kitten, chicken

-ie: dearie, birdie, lassie

-kin: lambkin, napkin

-let: leaflet

-ling: duckling, darling, stripling, weakling

-ock: hillock, bullock

Latin Suffixes - Noun Makers

Level: C1

(1) Denoting chiefly the agent/doer

-ain (an, en, on): chieftain, artisan, citizen, surgeon
-ar (er, eer, ier, ary): scholar, preacher, engineer, financier, missionary
-ate (ee, ey, y): advocate, trustee, attorney, deputy
-or (our, eur, er): emperor, saviour, amateur, interpreter

(2) Denoting state, action, result of an action

-age: bondage, marriage, breakage, leakage
-ance (ence): abundance, brilliance, assistance, excellence, innocence
-cy: fancy, accuracy, lunacy, bankruptcy
-ion: action, opinion, union
-ice (ise): service, cowardice, exercise
-ment: punishment, judgment, improvement
-mony: parsimony, matrimony, testimony
-tude: servitude, fortitude, magnitude
-ty: cruelty, frailty, credulity
-ure: pleasure, forfeiture, vedure
-y: misery, victory

(3) Forming diminutives

-cule (ule, cel, sel, el, le): animalcule, globule, parcel, damsel, chapel, circle
-et: owlet, lancet, trumpet
-ette: cigarette, coquette

(4) Denoting place

-ary (ery, ry): dispensary, library, nunnery, treasury
-ter (tre): cloister, theatre

Greek Prefixes 1

Level: C1

a- (an) without, not: atheist, apathy, anarchy
amphi- around, on both sides: amphitheatre, amphibious
ana- up, back: anachronism, analysis
anti- (ant) against: antipathy, antagonism
apo- (apo) from: apostate, apology
arch- (archi) chief: archbishop, archangel, architect
auto- self: autocrat, autobiography, autograph
cata- down: cataract, catastrophe, catalogue

English Prefixes

Level: C1

a- on, in: abed, aboard, ashore, ajar, asleep

a- out, from: arise, awake, alight

be- by, (sometimes an intensifier): beside, betimes, besmear, bedaub

for- thoroughly: forbear, forgive

fore- before: forecast, foresee, foretell

gain- against: gainsay

in- in, inside: income, inland, inlay

mis- wrong, wrongly: misdeed, mislead, misjudge

over- above, beyond: overflow, overcharge

to- this: today, tonight, tomorrow

un- not: untrue, unkind, unholy

un- to reverse an action: untie, undo, unfold

under- beneath, below: undersell, undercharge, undergo, underground

with- against, back: withdraw, withhold, withstand

Note: There are only two prefixes of English origin that are still applied freely to new words, mis- and un-, the former with the force of the adjective bad, and the latter with the force of a negative or reversal of an action.

Latin Prefixes 1

Level: C1

ab- (a, abs) from, away: abuse, avert, abstract
ad- (ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, at, a) to: adjoin, accord, affect, aggrieve, allege, announce, appoint, arrest, assign, attach, avail
ambi- (amb, am) on both sides, around: ambiguous, ambition, amputate
ante (anti, an) before: antedate, anticipate, ancestor
bene- well: benediction, benefit
bis- (bi, bin) twice, two: biscuit, bisect, binocular
circum- (circu) around: circumnavigate, circumference, circuit
con- (col, com, cor) with, together: contend, collect, combine, correct
contra- (counter) against: contradict, counteract, counterfeit
de- down: descend, dethrone, depose
dis- (dif, di) apart: disjoin, differ, divide
demi- half: demigod

Latin Suffixes - Adjective Makers

Level: C1

-al: national, regal, mortal, fatal
-an (ane): human, humane, mundane
-ar: familiar, regular
-ary: customary, contrary, necessary, ordinary, honorary
-ate: fortunate, temperate, obstinate
-ble (ible, able): feeble, sensible, laughable
-esque: picturesque, grotesque
-id: humid, vivid, lucid
-ile: servile, fagile, juvenile
-ine: feminine, canine, feline, divine
-ive: active, attentive, sportive
-lent: corpulent, indolent, turbulent, virulent
-ose (ous): verbose, dangerous, onerous, copious